An illustration from the Harley Bestiary, produced in England in about 1236-1250, during the reign of Henry III (r. 1216-1272), showing a Phoenix gathering plants. Commenting on St Paul’s words in 1 Corinthians 3:13-15, St John Chrysostom explained that this revealing ‘fire’ is not to be understood literally, and neither maims nor punishes the man. It simply tests the worth of his actions, as fire separates combustible dross from precious metals — a common Scriptural theme, see Psalm 66:10 — consuming the one and making the other glow more brightly. Chrysostom kindly reassures us that this process tests actions rather than their consequences, appreciating that many people die without having much to show for a lifetime of doing their best.
WITH fair faith they choose the Beloved above all worldly possessions; not for them is there hope of joy in clinging to this transient life. Thus the righteous man wins through lifelong effort unending joy, a home in heaven with the King of kings.
There the righteous, after their period of exile, shall be enringed with their own deeds, the works they have wrought; these are the noble and winsome plants with which the wild bird surrounds his own nest, so that it suddenly vanishes in flame, shrivels under the sun, and himself with it, thence receiving life anew after the burning is overpast.* In like manner every one of human kind invested with flesh shall be once more young and comely, if so be he bring it to pass of his own choice that the mighty King of glory is gracious unto him in that assembly. Then those holy spirits shall chant aloud; the righteous souls, pure and elect, shall raise a song, voice after voice lauding the majesty of their King; they shall mount to glory with the rich incense of their good deeds. The spirits of men shall be cleansed, brightly purified by the burning of fire.
Abridged
Abridged with one very minor alteration from the translation by Albert S. Cook in ‘Select translations from Old English Prose’ (1902) edited by Albert S. Cook and Chauncey B. Tinkler.
It may seem at first sight that this the late-mediaeval doctrine of Purgatory, but on closer inspection it is entirely different (and much harder to monetise). Cynewulf does not imagine a place called Purgatory, and whatever this fire may be — the fire is no more literal than the nest, and the reference to the sun suggests he is thinking of the blaze of the Sun of Righteousness in Malachi 4:2, cf. Revelation 21:23 and Revelation 22:5 — it burns not the man as a punishment but the man’s works as part of his glorious rebirth. The mediaeval Purgatory was a prison to spend as little time in as possible; Cynewulf’s nest is a snug little home to rejoice in. For a similar bonfire of a man’s works, see 1 Corinthians 3:13-15, which emphasises the need to make sure that after the fire we are left with materials fit for building mansions in the New Creation.
Questions for Critics
1. What is the author aiming to achieve in writing this?
2. Note any words, devices or turns of phrase that strike you. How do they help the author communicate his ideas more effectively?
3. What impression does this passage make on you? How might you put that impression into words?
Based on The English Critic (1939) by NL Clay, drawing on The New Criticism: A Lecture Delivered at Columbia University, March 9, 1910, by J. E. Spingarn, Professor of Comparative Literature in Columbia University, USA.
Précis
The Christian (the poet goes on) who has chosen eternal things over the fading things of this world surrounds himself phoenix-like with a protective nest; and then, on the Day of Judgment, nest and bird within suddenly combust, the faithful Christian emerging from the flames reborn, both beautiful and young, to sing God’s praises for evermore. (56 / 60 words)
The Christian (the poet goes on) who has chosen eternal things over the fading things of this world surrounds himself phoenix-like with a protective nest; and then, on the Day of Judgment, nest and bird within suddenly combust, the faithful Christian emerging from the flames reborn, both beautiful and young, to sing God’s praises for evermore.
Variations: 1.increase the length of this precis to exactly 60 words. 2.reduce the length of this precis to exactly 50 words. 3.introduce one of the following words into the precis: just, must, not, or, ought, since, unless, whether.
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Word Games
Spinners Find in Think and Speak
For each group of words, compose a sentence that uses all three. You can use any form of the word: for example, cat → cats, go → went, or quick → quickly, though neigh → neighbour is stretching it a bit.
This exercise uses words found in the accompanying passage.
1 Pass. Unto. Wreak.
2 Nest. Not. Work.
3 Once. Rich. Song.
Variations: 1. include direct and indirect speech 2. include one or more of these words: although, because, despite, either/or, if, unless, until, when, whether, which, who 3. use negatives (not, isn’t, neither/nor, never, nobody etc.)
Opposites Find in Think and Speak
Suggest words or phrases that seem opposite in meaning to each of the words below. We have suggested some possible answers; see if you can find any others.
This exercise uses words found in the accompanying passage.
1.
Best.
2.
Better.
3.
Faithful.
4.
Home.
5.
Joy.
6.
Like.
7.
More.
8.
Most.
9.
Work.
Variations: 1.instead of opposites, suggest words of similar meaning (synonyms). 2.use a word and its opposite in the same sentence. 3.suggest any 5 opposites formed by adding in-.
Subject and Object Find in Think and Speak
Use each word below in two sentences, first as the subject of a verb, and then as the object of a verb. It doesn’t have to be the same verb: some verbs can’t be paired with an object (e.g. arrive, happen), so watch out for these.
This exercise uses words found in the accompanying passage.
1. Song. 2. Burn. 3. Pass. 4. King. 5. Man. 6. Hope. 7. Home. 8. Bird. 9. Spirit.
Variations: 1.use your noun in the plural (e.g. cat → cats), if possible. 2.give one of your sentences a future aspect (e.g. will, going to). 3.write sentences using negatives such as not, neither, nobody and never.
Add Vowels Find in Think and Speak
Make words by adding vowels to each group of consonants below. You may add as many vowels as you like before, between or after the consonants, but you may not add any consonants or change the order of those you have been given. See if you can beat our target of common words.
pst (7+4)
past. pasta. paste. pest. posit. post. upset.
peseta. pesto. piste. postie.
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